A Rare Case of Focal Renal Fibromuscular Dysplasia Treated With Angioplasty: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND: Fibromuscular dysplasia is an idiopathic, segmental, nonatherosclerotic, noninflammatory vascular disease that can lead to arterial stenosis, tortuosity, occlusion, aneurysms, and dissection. Fibromuscular dysplasia is a rare cause of hypertension that can easily be missed. To date, there has been no definitive treatment for fibromuscular dysplasia. CASE REPORT: In this report, we present an uncommon case of renovascular hypertension in a 21-year-old non-white female with a 3-year history of hypertension secondary to fibromuscular dysplasia involving bilateral renal arteries. Computed tomography angiography during the arterial phase revealed distal focal narrowing of the right main renal artery, distal focal narrowing of the left main renal artery, and proximal focal narrowing of the left accessory lower renal artery. Percutaneous balloon dilatation of the stenotic lesion was performed successfully up to 1 year After the procedure, the arterial blood pressure was within the normal range (110/70 to 125/75 mmHg) without medication. After 1 year of follow-up, CTA revealed re-stenosis in left main renal artery without clinical symptoms and normal blood pressure. Repeated procedure was done successfully. CONCLUSIONS: This case report highlights the difficulty in the diagnosis and treatment of focal fibromuscular dysplasia in young non-white female patients. Computerized tomographic angiography is a useful tool for identifying the cause and showing the benefit of percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty treatment for this rare entity, as an early percutaneous angioplasty intervention may have a clinical cure for hypertension.

Atherosclerotic renovascular disease.

This review investigates patients with renovascular disease due to atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis. This group of patients has a very high risk of cardiovascular events. Randomised trials have failed to show that renal artery stenting is more effective than medical therapy alone in most patients but did not enroll patients with high-risk clinical syndromes. Recent cohort studies have observed a beneficial effect of renal artery stenting on blood pressure and kidney function in high-risk patients with atherosclerotic renovascular disease. Therefore, a Danish randomised trial has been initiated to explore these observations further.

Obesity blunts amelioration of cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis by human mesenchymal stem/stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles.

Renovascular hypertension (RVH) can induce cardiac damage that is reversible using adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (A-MSCs). However, A-MSCs isolated from patients with obesity are less effective than lean-A-MSC in blunting hypertensive cardiomyopathy in mice with RVH. We tested the hypothesis that this impairment extends to their obese A-MSC-extracellular vesicles (EVs) progeny. MSCs were harvested from the subcutaneous fat of obese and lean human subjects, and their EVs were collected and injected into the aorta of mice 2 wk after renal artery stenosis or sham surgery. Cardiac left ventricular (LV) function was studied with MRI 2 wk later, and myocardial tissue ex vivo. Blood pressure, LV myocardial wall thickness, mass, and fibrosis that were elevated in RVH mice were suppressed only by lean EVs. Hence, human A-MSC-derived lean EVs are more effective than obese EVs in blunting hypertensive cardiac injury in RVH mice. These observations highlight impaired paracrine repair potency of endogenous MSCs in patients with obesity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Injection of A-MSC-derived EVs harvested from patients who are lean can resolve myocardial injury in mice with experimental renovascular hypertension more effectively than A-MSC-derived EVs from patients with obesity. These observations underscore and might have important ramifications for the self-healing capacity of patients with obesity and for the use of autologous EVs as a regenerative tool.

Atherosclerotic renovascular disease: a clinical practice document by the European Renal Best Practice (ERBP) board of the European Renal Association (ERA) and the Working Group Hypertension and the Kidney of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH).

Atherosclerotic renovascular disease (ARVD) is the most common type of renal artery stenosis. It represents a common health problem with clinical presentations relevant to many medical specialties and carries a high risk for future cardiovascular and renal events, as well as overall mortality. The available evidence regarding the management of ARVD is conflicting. Randomized controlled trials failed to demonstrate superiority of percutaneous transluminal renal artery angioplasty (PTRA) with or without stenting in addition to standard medical therapy compared with medical therapy alone in lowering blood pressure levels or preventing adverse renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with ARVD, but they carried several limitations and met important criticism. Observational studies showed that PTRA is associated with future cardiorenal benefits in patients presenting with high-risk ARVD phenotypes (i.e. flash pulmonary oedema, resistant hypertension or rapid loss of kidney function). This clinical practice document, prepared by experts from the European Renal Best Practice (ERBP) board of the European Renal Association (ERA) and from the Working Group on Hypertension and the Kidney of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH), summarizes current knowledge in epidemiology, pathophysiology and diagnostic assessment of ARVD and presents, following a systematic literature review, key evidence relevant to treatment, with an aim to support clinicians in decision making and everyday management of patients with this condition.

Renovascular Hypertension with Progressive Atherosclerotic Renal Artery Stenosis in an Elderly Patient with Known Fibromuscular Dysplasia: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis (ARAS) and renovascular fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) are 2 of the most common etiologies of renovascular hypertension. They have different pathophysiologies, risk factors, presentations, and treatment options. However, as our population ages, it can become increasingly common to see patients who previously had FMD who develop ARAS at an advanced age, indicated by recurrent renovascular hypertension. CASE REPORT We present a case of a 66-year-old female patient who, in 2007, had presented with uncontrolled hypertension. She underwent magnetic resonance angiography and was found to have bilateral FMD, for which she received balloon angioplasty to a severe lesion on the mid-right renal artery and subsequently had normalization of blood pressures and resolution of symptoms. In 2021 she returned with uncontrolled hypertension while being treated with 3 antihypertensives. Bilateral renal arteriography revealed new severe ostial stenosis of the left renal artery and a patent right renal artery in which balloon angioplasty was performed 14 years ago. Based on the angiographic pattern of this new left RAS, we concluded this lesion was caused by atherosclerosis. The left ostial lesion was treated with a bare-metal stent and the patient was continued on antihypertensive medication and statin; at follow-up 4 months later, her blood pressures had normalized. CONCLUSIONS This case features a patient who developed severe ARAS with underlying history of bilateral renal artery FMD. Clinicians need to be aware that in patients with FMD, worsening renovascular hypertension at an advanced age could indicate the development of new hemodynamically significant ARAS. These patients need repeat diagnostic testing and treatment with medial optimization with or without endovascular revascularization in the appropriate clinical setting.

Endovascular Versus Medical Management of Atherosclerotic Renovascular Disease: Update and Emerging Concepts.

Atherosclerotic renovascular disease is the most frequent cause of renovascular hypertension and its prevalence increases with age and in specific subset of patients, such as those with end-stage chronic kidney disease, heart failure, and coronary artery disease. Besides hypertension, atherosclerotic renovascular disease is responsible for several clinical manifestations, including life-threatening conditions, such as recurrent flash pulmonary edema, rapidly progressive chronic kidney disease, or acute kidney injury. Atherosclerotic renovascular disease is usually part of a more diffuse atherosclerotic process and requires a combination therapy including antihypertensive, antiplatelet and lipid-lowering agents, as well as optimization of antidiabetic treatment, if needed. Besides medical therapy, percutaneous renal angioplasty was supposed to be the most effective therapy for atherosclerotic renovascular disease, by leading to blood flow restoration. However, despite an apparently solid rationale, several randomized clinical trials failed to confirm the favorable effects of percutaneous renal angioplasty on blood pressure control, kidney function, cardiovascular and renal outcomes, previously reported in observational, retrospective and single-center cohorts, switching off the enthusiasm for this procedure. Several studies' limitations may partly account for this failure, including heterogeneity of diagnostic techniques, overestimation of the degree of renal artery stenosis, inappropriate timing of revascularization, multiple protocol revisions, frequent crossovers, and most importantly exclusion of patients at higher likelihood to respond to angioplasty. The purpose of this review is to summarize studies' potential weaknesses and provide guidance to the clinician for identification of patients who may benefit most from revascularization.

A Nine-year-old Boy with Renovascular Hypertension: Knowing Where to Look.

Renal artery entrapment (RAE) by hypertrophic diaphragmatic crura is an extremely rare cause of renovascular hypertension (RVH). Here, we report the case of a 9-year-old boy diagnosed with RVH caused by right RAE by a hypertrophic diaphragmatic crus and successfully managed with close medical monitoring. Diagnosis of this entity is easily overlooked if the optimal views are not obtained during imaging, which depends on a high index of suspicion. We would like to remind clinicians to keep this rare condition in mind when evaluating children with RVH.

Effects of mesenchymal stem cells in renovascular disease of preclinical and clinical studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) causes severe renovascular hypertension, worsening kidney function, and increased cardiovascular morbidity. According to recent studies, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) administration is a promising therapy for the improvement of RAS outcomes. The meta-analysis aims to evaluate the therapeutic effects of MSC therapy on RAS. We performed a search in MEDLINE, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library from inception to 5, October 2022. We included 16 preclinical and 3 clinical studies in this meta-analysis. In preclinical studies, the pooled results indicated that animals treated with MSCs had lower levels of systolic blood pressure (SBP) (SMD = - 1.019, 95% CI - 1.434 to - 0.604, I2 = 37.2%, P = 0.000), serum creatinine (Scr) (SMD = - 1.112, 95% CI - 1.932 to - 0.293, I2 = 72.0%, P = 0.008), and plasma renin activity (PRA) (SMD = - 0.477, 95% CI - 0.913 to 0.042, I2 = 43.4%, P = 0.032). The studies also revealed increased levels of renal blood flow (RBF) in stenotic kidney (STK) (SMD = 0.774, 95% CI - 0.351 to 1.197, I2 = 0%, P = 0.000) and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of STK (SMD = 1.825, 95% CI 0.963 to 2.688, I2 = 72.6%, P = 0.000). In clinical studies, the cortical perfusion and fractional hypoxia of the contralateral kidney (CLK) were alleviated by MSC therapy. Taken together, this meta-analysis revealed that MSCs therapy might be a promising treatment for RAS. However, due to the discrepancy between preclinical studies and early clinical trials outcomes, MSC therapy couldn't be recommended in clinical care for the moment, more high-quality randomized controlled clinical trials are needed to validate our conclusions and standardize MSCs protocols.

IL-10 partly mediates the ability of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles to attenuate myocardial damage in experimental metabolic renovascular hypertension.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) obtain properties of immunomodulation and tissue repair from their parental mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and upon delivery may be associated with fewer adverse events. EVs derived from adipose-tissue MSCs restored kidney function by attenuating kidney inflammation in a swine model of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and renal artery stenosis via anti-inflammatory pathways. EVs also ameliorated myocardial injury in renovascular hypertension (RVH) secondary to inflammation in cardiorenal disease, but the mechanisms regulating this effect are unknown. We hypothesize that the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 mediates the reparative effects of EVs on cardiovascular complications in a preclinical swine model with coexisting MetS and RVH. Twenty-three pigs established as Lean controls or RVH models were observed for 16 weeks. At 12 weeks RVH subgroups received an intrarenal delivery of 1011 either wildtype (WT) EVs or EVs after IL-10 knockdown (KD) (RVH+WT-EVs or RVH+IL-10-KD-EVs, respectively). Cardiac and renal function were studied in-vivo and myocardial tissue injury in-vitro 4 weeks later. RVH pigs showed myocardial inflammation, fibrosis, and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction. WT-EVs attenuated these impairments, increased capillary density, and decreased myocardial inflammation in-vivo. In-vitro, co-incubation with IL-10-containing WT-EVs decreased activated T-cells proliferation and endothelial cells inflammation and promoted their migration. Contrarily, these cardioprotective effects were largely blunted using IL-10-KD-EVs. Thus, the anti-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic effects of EVs in RVH may be partly attributed to their cargo of anti-inflammatory IL-10. Early intervention of IL-10-containing EVs may be helpful to prevent cardiovascular complications of MetS concurrent with RVH.

Malignant arterial hypertension in a 2-month-old girl: Etiological diagnosis and treatment.

A 2-month-old girl presented with malignant arterial hypertension revealing bilateral renal artery stenosis secondary to neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). Life-supporting care was initiated immediately. High-dose peripheral vasodilator therapy induced life-threatening toxicity; vascular surgery was therefore performed. Technical difficulties due to the young age and low body weight of the patient resulted in fatal bleeding. Renovascular disease is an important cause of pediatric hypertension. NF1-associated renovascular hypertension in young pediatric patients is rare, and its highly specialized management is best delivered via a multidisciplinary approach. The long-term prognosis remains poor.

Percutaneous cutting balloon angioplasty for the treatment of renovascular hypertension in children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA), the recommended treatment in children with renovascular hypertension (RVH), often has unsatisfactory outcomes. Cutting balloons may improve the results of angioplasty in different vascular beds with complex and resistant lesions. We retrospectively analysed the effects of percutaneous cutting balloon angioplasty (PCBA) on blood pressure, cardiac mass and renal artery acceleration time in children/adolescents referred to our centre for RVH. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Thirteen patients (aged 9-19 years) with renal artery stenosis (RAS) and severe hypertension were identified. RASs were focal fibromuscular (FMD) or FMD-like dysplasia (in six cases bilateral, in five associated with mid aortic syndrome). Ten patients had uncontrolled hypertension, in nine cases associated with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). Acceleration time was abnormal in all stenotic arteries. Eighteen PCBA were performed, in three arteries associated with stent implantation. RESULTS: PCBA was technically successful in all individuals without major complications. In one patient, an intra-stent restenosis occurred, successfully redilated with conventional angioplasty without recurrence at 4 years distance. One year after PCBA, mean SBP and DBPs were markedly reduced from 146 ±â€Š25 to 121 ±â€Š10 mmHg and from 87 ±â€Š11 to 65 ±â€Š12 mmHg, respectively ( P  < 0.001 for both). At that time, hypertension was cured in seven children and controlled in five individuals. This favourable outcome was confirmed with ambulatory blood pressure measurement in four patients. At the latest follow-up, left ventricular mass and acceleration time were normal in all patients. CONCLUSION: PCBA proved to be a well tolerated and effective procedure that can be considered as an alternative to PTRA to treat hypertensive children/adolescents with recurrent or resistant RAS.

Presentation, treatment, and outcome of renovascular hypertension below 2 years of age.

Renovascular hypertension in most cases requires endovascular treatment and/or surgery. This is technically much more difficult in small children and there is very limited published knowledge in this age group. We here present treatment and outcome of young children with renovascular hypertension at our institution. Children below 2 years of age, with renovascular hypertension between January 1998 and March 2020 were retrospectively reviewed. Demographics and treatment modalities were noted. Primary outcome was blood pressure within a week after the procedures and at last available visit. Sixty-six angiographies were performed in 34 patients. Median age at time of first angiography was 1.03 (interquartile range (IQR) 0.4-1.4) years and systolic blood pressure at presentation 130 (IQR 130-150) mm Hg. Thirty-eight percent (13/34) of children were incidentally diagnosed and 18% (6/34) presented with heart failure. Twenty-six (76%) children had main renal artery stenosis and 17 (50%) mid-aortic syndrome. Seventeen (50%) children showed intrarenal, six (18%) mesenteric, and three (9%) cerebrovascular involvement. Twenty patients underwent 45 percutaneous transluminal angioplasty procedures and seven children surgeries. In 44% of the 16 patients who underwent only percutaneous transluminal angioplasty blood pressure was normalized, 38% had improvement on same or decreased treatment and 19% showed no improvement. Complications were seen in 7.5% (5/66) of angiographies. In four of the seven (57%) children who underwent surgery blood pressure was normalized, two had improved (29%) and one unchanged (14%) blood pressure. CONCLUSION: In small children with renovascular hypertension below the age of 2 years, percutaneous transluminal angioplasty caused significant improvement in blood pressure with low complication profile. Surgery can be recommended where percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and medical treatments failed. WHAT IS KNOWN: • Renovascular hypertension is diagnosed in all age groups from a few weeks of life until adulthood. • Both angioplasty and surgery are significantly more difficult to perform in small children and the published information on short and long-term outcome in these children is very scarce. WHAT IS NEW: • Children below the age of two years can safely and successfully undergo selective renal angiography and also safely be treated with angioplasty. • We here present a large group of babies and infants where angioplasty and in some cases surgery effectively and safely improved their blood pressure.

Renal artery revascularization is a controversial treatment strategy for renal artery stenosis: A case series and a brief review of the current literature.

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) may cause secondary hypertension, progressive decline in renal function, and cardiac destabilization syndromes including "flash" pulmonary edema, recurrent congestive heart failure, and cerebro-cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerotic lesions, fibromuscular dysplasia, and vasculitides are the pathophysiological basis of the disease. Common therapeutic pathways for RAS include medical therapy and revascularization with or without stenting. Randomized controlled trials evaluating renal revascularization have not reported any advantages of revascularization over medical therapy alone in terms of renal function improvement or prevention of cardiovascular events. However, mounting clinical experience suggests that the best strategy in RAS management is to identify which patients are most likely to benefit from renal artery stenting and to optimize the safety and durability of the procedure. This review presents 3 cases of patients who have undergone renal revascularization and discusses the available clinical evidence for the identification of RAS patients who will potentially respond well to revascularization.

Exaggerated natriuresis after renal artery balloon angioplasty for flash pulmonary oedema: a potential complication in one-kidney renovascular hypertension.

Flash pulmonary oedema is a life-threatening complication of renal artery stenosis. We report a very rare complication in a patient with bilateral atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis who underwent unilateral renal artery angioplasty because of recurrent flash pulmonary oedema. Shortly after the procedure, she developed extreme polyuria (over 201 in the first 48 h) with massive natriuresis (>1000 mmol urinary sodium excretion in the first 24 h). Most likely, the occurrence of this phenomenon is related to the fact that her contralateral kidney was atrophic and no longer functioning due to total renal artery occlusion. We provide an overview of the literature and discuss several mechanisms that may contribute to the occurrence of this exaggerated natriuretic response in patients with one-kidney renovascular hypertension who undergo renovascular revascularization. We recommend close monitoring of natriuresis in such patients and - if needed - administration of intravenous isotonic saline (0.9% NaCl) to prevent hypovolemia.

Renal Revascularization Attenuates Myocardial Mitochondrial Damage and Improves Diastolic Function in Pigs with Metabolic Syndrome and Renovascular Hypertension.

Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) may improve cardiac function in renovascular hypertension (RVH), but its effect on the biological mechanisms implicated in cardiac damage remains unknown. We hypothesized that restoration of kidney function by PTRA ameliorates myocardial mitochondrial damage and preserves cardiac function in pigs with metabolic syndrome (MetS) and RVH. Pigs were studied after 16 weeks of MetS+RVH, MetS+RVH treated 4 weeks earlier with PTRA, and Lean and MetS Sham controls (n=6 each). Cardiac function was assessed by multi-detector CT, whereas cardiac mitochondrial morphology and function, microvascular remodeling, and injury pathways were assessed ex vivo. PTRA attenuated myocardial mitochondrial damage, improved capillary and microvascular maturity, and ameliorated oxidative stress and fibrosis, in association with attenuation of left ventricular remodeling and diastolic dysfunction. Myocardial mitochondrial damage correlated with myocardial injury and renal dysfunction. Preservation of myocardial mitochondria with PTRA can enhance cardiac recovery, underscoring its therapeutic potential in experimental MetS+RVH.

Midterm Outcomes of Angioplasty for Pediatric Renovascular Hypertension.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the midterm outcomes of percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty (PTRA) for pediatric renovascular hypertension (RVH). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The clinical data of patients who underwent PTRA for RVH in the authors' hospital from 2012 to 2019 were retrospectively analyzed. Postprocedural blood pressure, glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of the affected kidney, restenosis, and complications were closely monitored. RESULTS: PTRA was performed in a total of 30 children (20 boys and 10 girls), with a mean age of 7.3 years ± 0.7 (range, 40 days to 13.9 years) and a mean weight of 25.0 kg ± 2.3 (range, 3.4-53 kg). The median follow-up period was 26.5 months (range, 1 month to 7.5 years). Technical success was achieved in 26 (86.7%) of the 30 patients. Restenosis developed in 3 patients (10.0%). Only 1 patient underwent stent implantation, and the stent fractured 8 months later, requiring further intervention. There were no other complications. In terms of clinical benefit of blood pressure control after the initial PTRA procedure, 15 patients (50%) were cured and 7 patients (23.3%) showed improvement. There was no significant difference in the etiology, lesion location, and lesion length between patients with clinical benefit and failure (P = .06, P = .202, and P = .06, respectively). GFR of the affected kidney was significantly improved from 19.9 mL/min ± 11.2 to 38.1 mL/min ± 11.9 at the 6-month follow-up after PTRA (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The overall results of PTRA for pediatric RVH caused by different etiologies are promising. PTRA not only provided a clinical benefit of blood pressure control in 73.3% of the patients but also significantly improved the function of the affected kidney.

Endovascular interventions in main renal artery pathologies: an overview and update.

Renal arteries are involved in a wide spectrum of pathologies including atherosclerosis, fibromuscular dysplasia, Takayasu arteritis, aneurysms, and aortic type B dissections extending into main renal arteries. They manifest as renovascular hypertension, renal ischemia, and cardiovascular dysfunction. The location of the renal arteries in relation to the abdominal aortic aneurysm is a critical determinant of interventional options and long-term prognosis. This article provides a comprehensive review of the role of interventional radiologists in transcatheter interventions in various pathologies involving the main renal arteries with analysis of epidemiology, pathophysiology, newer interventional techniques, and management options.